Earth Sciences Pakistan (ESP)

Pavement blocks are increasingly popular in construction due to their durability, versatility, and aesthetics. However, their conventional production process heavily relies on natural resources like sand, cement, and aggregates, raising sustainability concerns. The construction industry faces growing pressure to adopt eco-friendly practices that minimize environmental harm and conserve resources. This study explored using waste materials in making interlocking pavement blocks. It found that replacing some cement with bagasse ash, fly ash, and brick kiln dust improved compressive strength compared to traditional blocks after 28 days. Substituting some aggregate with crushed waste plastic slightly reduced tensile strength, particularly at 7 and 28 days, with lower replacement ratios performing better. Overall, using waste materials in pavement block production has the potential to promote sustainable construction by reducing environmental impact and costs, aligning with sustainable development principles and resource efficiency.

Earth’s geological history spans billions of years, yielding insights into its evolution, climate shifts, and life’s development. This article provides a comprehensive overview, encompassing eons, eras, and pivotal events. Geological processes like tectonics, volcanism, and continental formation are explored. We analyze stratigraphy, paleontology, and dating techniques to offer a clear understanding of Earth’s journey. Beginning with the geological time scale, the narrative delves into Precambrian eons, from the fiery Hadean to the emergence of complex life in the Proterozoic. The Paleozoic era’s emergence of terrestrial life and Cambrian explosion are detailed, along with the Mesozoic’s reptilian dominance and Pangaea’s breakup. The Cenozoic era, spanning from dinosaurs to the present, covers mammalian evolution, ice ages, and hominid impact. Geological processes that shaped Earth’s surface and lithosphere are outlined, including tectonics’ role in continental movement. Extinctions, climate shifts, and land bridge formations demonstrate how geology influenced life. Human interaction’s geological consequences, such as climate change and resource utilization, are considered. Understanding Earth’s geological history underscores our planet’s dynamic nature, informing conservation and resource management decisions. Through this exploration, we uncover the intricate relationship between geological processes, biological evolution, and environmental systems that define our world.

The modern taxonomical consideration is used for most diagnostic sixteen Maastrichtian-Neogene Rotaliid benthic foraminiferal species of the genus Pararotalia Le Calvez which has wide geographic distribution in many Tethyan sites: USA, Northern Tethys (England, France, Belgium, Holland, Germany, Italy, Poland, Slovenia, Romania) and Southern Tethys (Libya, Egypt, Tanzania, UAE, Pakistan, India). The Maastrichtian-Paleocene species is P. tuberculifera (Reuss). The Paleocene species is P. macneili Loeblich and Tappan. The Paleocene-Eocene species is P. ishamae Loeblich and Tappan. The Eocene species are: P. audouini (d’Orbigny), P. clavezae Loeblich & Tappan, P. inermis (Terquem), P. khirthari Haque, and P. pakistanica Anan. The Eocene-Oligocene species is P. spinigera (Le Calcez). The Oligocene species are: P. byramensis (Cushman), P. curryi Loeblich & Tappan, P. parva (Cushman) and P. subinermis Bhatia. The Neogene species are: Pararotalia aculeata (d’Orbigny), P. armata (d’Orbigny) and P. loeblichi Anan. One species is believed to be new: Pararotalia loeblichi Anan, n. sp. Eight species of them were recorded from USA (about 50%), 6 from Romania (about 37.5%), 5 from each of France, Egypt, UAE and Pakistan (about 31.5%), 3 from Poland (about 19%), 2 from Belgium, Italy and Slovenia (about 12.5%), 1 species from each of England, Libya and India (about 6%). The petaloid test and keeled peripheral margin are mostly represented warm water environment.

The latest Maastrichtian planktic foraminiferal Egyptian species Plummerita haggagae Anan from the planktic foraminiferal zonation P. hantkeninoides Zone of Duwi section (Qusseir area, Red Sea coast, Eastern Desert of Egypt) has last spine-like prolongation of the three penultimate of four-chambered volution test, and also recorded here from the same stratigraphic horizon of Per Fat section (Duhok area, Kurdistan region of Iraq). This species represents the third group of Plummerita (Plummerita haggagae group of Anan). The other two groups of Plummerita, which produced by Brönnimann (1952) from Trinidad, are: Plummerita hantkeninoides group (last five-chambered volution: P. hantkeninoides, P. costata, P. inflata), and Plummerita reicheli group (last six-chambered volition: P. reicheli, P. pustulata, P. hexacamerata). P. haggagae is distinguished by its four-chambered volition in dextral coiling, with axially pointed spine-like prolongation for the three penultimate chambers, but without spine-like prolongation of the last fourth inflated chamber. The fauna of Gabal Duwi in central Egypt is predominantly considered here to be related to MTF (middle-upper neritic environment (100-200 m water depth).

Well-log, biostratigraphic, chronological chart and seismic data from offshore Wabi Field in the Niger Delta were used to delineate depositional sequences, stratigraphy, systems tracts and flooding surfaces. Geologic faults, horizons systems tracts were detected in seismic section. The faulting patterns ware boundary, synthetic, antithetic, and roll-over faults in N-W to S-E trending. Hydrocarbons are encountered between 9,560 and 12,750ftss in 3-stacked B, O, and R1 reservoirs in crestally collapsed rollover anticlines, which are predominantly shore face. Reservoir R1 was the thickest (320ft) sand unit; Reservoir B was the thinnest (50ft) sand unit. The thinning of the sand sequences at greater depths is indicative of bulk density being increased as the sediment compacted. Sequence Stratigraphic Analysis reveals Onlap is generally associated with marine transgression; Toplap which terminates below the surface, lap out in the landward direction. Three (3) maximum flooding surfaces (MFS) of 20.4Ma, 16.7Ma and 15.9Ma were inferred. The field was deposited during lower to upper Miocene Epoch using the Niger Delta Cenozoic Geologic Data. The reservoirs of interest fall within the following system tracts: B Sand is a Low Stand System Tract (LST), O Sand is a High Stand System Tract (HST) and R1 Sand is a Transgressive System Tract (TST). Two types of facies of channel (blocky signatures) and shoreface (coarsening upward) sand deposits with traces of heterolithic sand, silty sand (serrated motif) and marine shale are inferred. Wabi field is dominantly fluvial (channel deposits) environment as shown by the major blocky log signature. The results could help identify depositional sequences, systems tracts on seismic sections by interpreting the location of their boundaries and flooding surfaces. Moreover, delineation of subsurface structures, reservoir quality and lateral extents are of key importance in the determination of economic viability of Fields and exploration opportunities.

Water is one of the determinants of the human-earth system. Diseases may spring up through water pollution, especially groundwater contamination, and rapidly spread beyond human expectations because of its flow mechanism. This study aims to assess the impact of landfills on groundwater quality in Apete/Awotan area, Ibadan, Oyo State, Southwestern Nigeria using The Electrical Resistivity and hydrochemical methods. The Electrical Resistivity method involves the use of 2D Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) and Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) techniques. The hydrochemical method involves the collection of seven water samples from boreholes and hand-dug wells, with sampling depths ranging from 9 to 75 m. Sixteen VES were carried out using Schlumberger array with current electrode spacing varying from 1 to 65 m, with 2-D ERT using Wenner array with an electrode spacing of 5 m interval and was used to determine the subsurface lithologies. The results from both methods indicate high levels of chemical contamination of the water from the boreholes and well water within and outside the dumpsite to a distance of 20 m away; health problems such as typhoid fever or worm infestation are imminent when such water is consumed. Good correlations exist between the Electrical Resistivity results and hydrochemical analysis for contamination in some strategically located notably S1, S2, and S3. 30 m away from the dumpsite are yet to be contaminated and can be relatively said to be of good water quality based on their locations and anions concentrations falling within the maximum permissible limit for water constituents by the World Health Organization.

This research work asses the problems of building foundation within Sagari Estate, Akure, Southwestern Nigeria, using remotely sensed data and geophysical methods. The slope, lineament, hill, and contour map were generated using terrain analysis in ArcGIS 10.5 environment. Electrical Resistivity (ER) and Very Low Frequency (EM-VLF) Electromagnetic methods were used in this study. The ER method involves the use of Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) with Schlumberger configuration. The initial geoelectric parameters obtained from the fifty three (53) VES station points interpretation (layer resistivities and thicknesses) were used to generate geoelectric maps. The variation of strata and physical strength information within the investigated area were determined from the integrated results of the three methods. Results revealed that substantial portion of the areas studied is relatively unsuitable for high rise civil engineering foundations. However, it was showed that the northern and southern parts of the investigated area were more suitable for foundations. The dominant presence of lineaments, steep slopes , fractures, streams, and thick clayey topsoil as well as weathered layers within the western, eastern, and the central portions reveals susceptibility to subsidence if adequate structural supports mitigate the effect of the persistent foundation failure are not provided.

The analysis of the discovered base metal elements in Itagunmodi, Southwest, Ife-Ilesha schist belts, Nigeria, with a case study of Amuta, was carried out to ascertain the likelihood of these elements forming ore bodies that might sustain mining activity in the area alongside gold. The aim is to determine the economic viability potentials of the detected base metals’ mineralisation to support mining activities in the study area. The geochemical analysis results indicated that the concentrations of these elements copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), lead (pb), and zinc (Zn) are substantial in the majority of the locations when compared to the area’s typical concentrations. When the copper 614.2, nickel 705.1, lead 47.1, and zinc 987.8 threshold values were compared to their recoverable concentrations, it was determined that these elements, with the exception of lead in location 4, are not anomalous in the area. When these elements’ concentration factors were compared to their usual crustal abundance values, it was determined that they are not enough concentrated to form ore bodies in the studied location. Electrical geophysical methods utilizing induced polarization were used to determine the locations of selected stream samples. The results from the five locations typically indicated a significant IP signature with chargeability values ranging from 8 to 18 msec, confirming the occurrence of base metals mineralization in the study region. This indicates that the ore deposit is uneven and distributed within fault/fracture zones. As a result, the detected base metals’ mineralisation potentials in the study region are not economically viable to support mining activities. Thus, it is concluded that, while the studied area is mineralized in base metals, its ore body formation propensity is extremely low, and thus cannot sustain economically viable mining activities.

Two hundred and twenty-seven Maastrichtian-Early Paleogene benthic foraminiferal species were recorded from three widely separated surface Jordanian sections: Wadi Arab in the north, Muwaqqar in the center, and Tell Burma in the south. Forty-two species and subspecies were listed. Fifteen diagnostic species of them are treated by him as new species, which recorded and illustrated in this study. The paleogeographic distribution of them in some other countries in the Southern Tethys are recorded: United Arab Emirates (UAE), Egypt, Tunisia, Tanzania and Angola. One of the original species of Futyan: Siphogenerinoides elnaggari is considered here as a junior synonym of another species Orthokarstenia higazyi (Nakkady). The paratype of the recorded species Vaginulinopsis wadiarabensis Futyan is considered recently, by the present author, as a new genus and species: Lenticuzonaria hodae, while the holotype of it was regarded to be the holotype of the new genus Percultalina. As a token of appreciation of his outstanding career and faunal contributions, one species was recently erected: Pseudoclavulina futyani. Most of the recorded species (10 species) are endemic to Jordan, while others were recorded in other countries in the Southern Tethys. Most of these species are used to introduce an evolutionary trend marked by changes in the morphology and other characters of these benthic foraminiferal test. The Jordanian assemblage indicates an open marine environment, which represents middle-outer neritic environment (100 m ~ 200 m depth) and shows an affinity with Midway-Type Fauna (MTF).

Geoelectrical investigation was carried out in Otuo Community of Edo State, Southern Nigeria, with the aim of delineating the best aquifer bearing zone, and as well the vertical and lateral variation of subsurface lithology with depth and distance respectively. Schlumberger electrode configuration was employed in obtaining four (4) VES data. In determining the capacity bearing rating and groundwater potential of the area, the Dar Zarruk Parameters were tools used in characterizing the aquifer viz: Resistivity Contrast (RC), Resistivity Reflection Coefficient (RRC), Total Transverse Resistance (T) and Total Longitudinal Conductance (S). From the results obtained, VES 3 is the showed high potential source for groundwater compared to other VES points. It has the highest T value of 73,050.27 Ωm2 (showing a very good transmissivity of the layer), RC (3.045) and RRC (0.500), however, all parameters fell within good prospect for groundwater development. VES 1, 2 and 4 having values of 4787.22, 4003.95 and 28106.1005 (ohm-m2) respectively. The results obtained also show that VES 3 had the highest fracture thickness of 61.26 m meaning it has the highest groundwater potential, since VES 1, 2 and 4 having values of 22.02 m, 27.34 m, 48.91 m respectively.