Earth Sciences Pakistan (ESP)

Field and petrographic studies of the Makenene area in the Central African Fold Belt in Cameroon reveals several features testifying the mafic and felsic magmas interactions and their coeval nature. They are: (1) the Mafic Magmatic Enclaves (MMEs) scattered throughout the Makenene granitoid pluton and displaying sub-rounded shape and back veining, (2) flow structures consisting of schlierens at the tails of MMEs, folded MMEs along with felsic host granitoids with hinge indicating the flow direction, (3) irregular or cuspate boundary between MMEs and host granitoids, (4) quenching of apatite and biotites minerals, (5) MMEs enclosing other MMEs or felsic host granitoids. The mafic magma injection operated during at least four stages (from early to late crystallization state of the host magma) leading respectively to the formation of homogenized granitoid; sub-spherical MMEs scattered in the pluton; dismembered dyke and undisturbed synplutonic mafic dyke. The Makenene area registered four deformation phases (D1 to D4). The first two deformation phases occurred before the magmatism and migmatization events. The third phase is coeval to the magmatism and the migmatization period (at the Eburnean orogeny (2.08-2.07 Ga)). The fourth phase is related to the Panafrican orogeny.

The present study is a part of the comprehensive works concerned with the complete record of the Paleogene small benthic foraminiferal content in the Ranikot and Laki Formations of the Nammal Gorge, Salt and Sor Ranges of Pakistan. The first part was concerned with the Miliolina and Lagenina foraminiferal assemblage of Haque from Pakistan, and followed by the second part which concerned with the Rotaliid assemblage of the same author of Pakistan. The third part is concerned with the Textulariid part and presented in this study. Twenty one Early Paleogene Pakistanian smaller Textulariid (Agglutinated) benthic foraminiferal species and subspecies from the Ranikot and Laki Formations of the Nammal Gorge, Salt and Sor Ranges of Pakistan have been studied and are systematically listed. This systematic description provides a list of modern synonyms, short remarks about morphological features, and some annotations about taxa with problematic generic status. These species are: Spiroplectinella ushbali, Gaudryina nitida, Siphogaudryina daviesi, S. elongata, S. nammalensis, Verneuilina laevigata, Tritaxia elongata, T. limbata, Dorothia nammalensis, Marssonella nammalensis, Bigenerina khirthari, B. metingensis, B. nodosa, Textularia crookshanki, T. haquei, T. punjabensis, Clavulinoides lakiensis, C. spatha, C. symmetrica, Valvulina n. nammalensis, V. nammalensis longa. Most of the recorded species are an endemic to Pakistan, except five species Siphogaudryina elongata, Tritaxia elongata, T. limbata, Textularia crookshanki and T. punjabensis are recorded in some Northern Tethys (France, Hungary) and Southern Tethys (India, Iran, UAE, Egypt, Algeria). The paleoenvironmental interpretations of the identified species in the study area of Pakistan were deposited in somewhat deep water and open-marine environments. The abundance of pelagic Pakistanian benthic foraminiferal assemblages indicate an open connection to the Tethys, which represents middle-outer neritic environment (100-200 m depth) and shows an affinity with the Atlantic-Tethyan Regions: “Midway Type Fauna “.

Sangon Hamlet is included in the mountains which are dominated by andesite rocks and volcanic breccias which cross each other and have a distribution of joints and faults forming a fracture. The fracture is a medium for draining water in the area. There is a difference in ground water level as seen from the well. To re-detail the groundwater flow that has been formed, a groundwater flow pattern modeling is carried out. The modeling is done by numerical method assisted by Modflow Flex Software. For building the model, it is necessary to prepare a concept model, calibration and validation. In this area there are 2 aquifer systems, namely unconfined aquifers and aquitards. Furthermore, the model was calibrated using the sensitivity analysis method. The calibration results are obtained, namely the RMS value of 8.74% with a standard error estimate of 1.27 m and a correlation coefficient of 0.98. From this model, it is known that the flow of water moves from the northwest-north area in the form of a plateau by heading to the east-southeast area which is a lower plain and towards the Plampang River.

Study area concedes the compressional stresses caused by the collision of Indian and Eurasian plates molded the northwest- southeast trending faults which are Riasi Fault (RF), Palandri Fault (PF), Godri Badshah Fault (GBF) and Chhechhan Fault (CF). This study intended to analyze the Kamlial sandstone as an aggregate problem for construction industry while sedimentary structure, stratigraphic sequence and geology of the study area were also destined. The study area comprised Nakar, Chhechhan, Holar, Tallian and Sarsawah of Palandri Azad Kashmir. The Impact value, Los Angeles Abrasion resistance, Specific gravity and Water absorption test were evaluated for kamlial sandstone. The samples were collected from Garata Sarsawa, Panjeera, Telyan, Kharran, Jabbri kass, Kand Gora, Parasgali, Garrala, Hollar, Chhechann and Nakar near Pallandri. Impact value of Kamlial Sandstone recorded 25.2, Abrasion Resistance of Kamlial Sandstones is 41.4 % which is less than AASHTO value i.e 50 percent. The Apparent Specific gravity initiate 2.1 percent which is less than ASTM standards i.e between 2.6-2.9. and the Water Absorption value recorded 2.24%. The results intimate that the Kamlial sandstone does not qualify ASTM specification for aggregate.

Eighty-five Early Paleogene Pakistanian smaller Rotaliid benthic foraminiferal species belong to thirty-nine genera from the Ranikot, Nammal and Laki Formations of the Nammal Gorge, Salt and Sor Ranges of Pakistan have been studied. The modern taxonomic consideration and systematic description of the species is based on the diagnostic morphology, list of synonyms, short remarks about morphological features, and annotations about taxa with problematic generic status. Most of the recorded species are, so far, an endemic to Pakistan, except 19 species of them were recorded in other localities in the Southern Tethys (India, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Nigeria) and also in Northern Tethys (France, Spain, Slovenia). The high abundance of pelagic Pakistanian foraminiferal assemblage indicate open connection to the Tethys, which represents middle-outer neritic environment (100-200 m depth) and shows an affinity with Midway-Type Fauna ‘MTF’.

Ramsar sites are important habitats for the locals as well as for migratory birds that visit these sites across the borders every year. Langh and Drigh lakes were selected as the study area for this research. Drigh Lake is one of the important Ramsar sites, and Langh Lake is an important wildlife sanctuary of national importance. For the past few decades, these lakes are degrading due to anthropogenic activities. To quantify these variations, present study was carried out to detect the land use and land cover change in these lakes and their surrounding areas from 1988 to 2020. Level-2 imageries of Landsat 5, 7, and 8 were downloaded and analyzed using hybrid classification, and results were mapped in ArcMap. Accuracy assessment of the results of selected years was done to check the accuracy of results using the Kappa coefficient. Kappa coefficient resulted between 0.82 and 0.95 for this study. Classification results depicted a significant increase in the vegetation area which is 72% and 32% for langh and drigh lakes respectively since 1988. Results show an increase in the buildup area and a decrease in the barren land. The presence of dense vegetation in the lakes near their boundaries verifies encroachment of lakes by the local farmers.

The riparian zone is an ecological corridor for the rivers, forests, and lakes where the transition of water occurs between flora, fauna, and alluvial soil. It functions as a barrier to protect the riparian cities from floods, a retainer to hold the sediments transported in the water body, and a purifier in an order to adsorb the harmful dissolved solids present in the river flow. At some rivers, where the riparian zone has been degraded, the natural vegetation is observed to be under-functioning, consequently decreasing the water quality. The anthropogenic activities on river beds e.g agriculture are a reason for riparian degradation. In this study, the riparian zone of River Indus’s reach between the Sukkur and Kotri barrages is observed to identify the varying land covers and land temperature ranges due to agricultural invasion that could threaten the river ecosystem and sustainability. In a low flood period, less moisture on the river bed facilitates the detection of mature Rabi crops through the Landsat satellite. Acquired Imageries were classified for natural vegetation and agricultural area using the Visible bands. Land Surface Temperature (LST) was calculated from the pixels of the Thermal band. The images for 1999, 2003, 2010, 2015, 2018, and 2019 for February were utilized for the processing. Results demonstrated that in 1999, the 45.4% area of the Sukkur-Kotri reach was under the natural vegetation cover and decreased up to 14.2% area in 2019. In 1999, 22.5% of the reach area was under agricultural farming and increased up to 60% of the area in 2019. Analysis of surface temperature demonstrated that the areas having high temperatures are under natural vegetation cover, which is being reduced. And the areas having low temperatures are under agricultural farming, which is being increased inside the riparian zone.

Thirteen Early Paleogene Pakistanian smaller Miliolid and eight Lagenid benthic foraminiferal species and subspecies from the Ranikot and Laki Formations of the Nammal Gorge, Salt and Sor Ranges, Punjab of Northern Pakistan have been studied. The modern taxonomic consideration and systematic description of the species is based on the diagnostic morphology, and provides a list of synonyms, short remarks about morphological features of the taxa and some annotations about taxa with problematic generic status. Two species of them belong to the genus Spiroloculina(haquei, pakistanica), four of Quinqueloculina (inflata, pseudosimplex, pseudovata, ranikotensis), two of Triloculina (psudoenoplostoma, sarahae), two of Agglutinella (reinemundi, sori) and three of Dentostomina (ammobicarinata, ammoirregularis, gapperi). One species of the Lagenid belongs to the genus Frondicularia (nammalensis), one of Lenticulina (reussi), one subspecies of Palmula (woodi nammalensis), one of Astacolus (vomeriformis), one of Vaginulinopsis (nammalensis), one of Lagena (reticulatostriata), one of Galawayella (nammalensis) and one of Parafissurina (pakistanica). The two species of the Miliolids: Spiroloculina (haquei, pakistanica) and one Lagenid Parafissurina (pakistanica) are believed to be new. Some of these species are recorded outside of Pakistan in Northern Tethys (France): Astacolus vomeriformis and Vaginulinopsis nammalensis. The high abundance of pelagic Pakistanian foraminiferal assemblage indicate open connection to the Tethys, which represents middle-outer neritic environment (100-200 m depth) and shows an affinity with ‘Midway-Type Fauna’.

Lenticuzonaria n. gen. is introduced here to include the Paleocene benthic Lagenid Foraminiferids from some Southern Tethyan localities (Egypt and Jordan) that characterized by planispirally enrolled symmetrical hyaline calcareous test, ornamented surface by elevated sutures with a row of tubercles or broken into a row of nodes along the sutures, and spinose surface. Some representatives of the new genus have been previously assigned to the genus Vaginulinopsis Reuss (1860), or Lenticulina Lamarck (1804), or Marginulinopsis Silvestri (1904). The new genus has a compiled characters between its lenticular test (as the genus Lenticulina Lamarck, 1804 with its planispirally enrolled test, unbroken continuous sutures and smooth surface), and also another genus Percultazonaria Loeblich & Tappan, 1986 (which has planispiral-uniserial test with ornamented surface mainly by elevated sutures that may costate or broken nodes). Two Paleocene species of the new genus are described here from two countries in the Southern Tethys: Jordan (Lenticuzonaria hodae) and Egypt (Lenticuzonaria misrensis). These two species have planispirally enrolled symmetrical hyaline calcareous test with ornamented surface. L. hodae has spinose ornamented surface, besides the elevated sutures, while L. misrensis has a row of nodes elevated sutures, but without spinose surface.

Lower Bari Doab Canal is the oldest irrigation system, however LBDC inequitably distribute the water from head to tail end. Spatial climate variability across the command area of LBDC has impact on reallocation of canal water supply and usage of irrigated water from head end to the tail end. The irrigation demand is increased with the increasing of cropping intensity due to increase of population, hence the surface water supply and rainfall do not fulfilled the crop water requirement then farmer abstracted more groundwater for fulfilled these requirement. At the tail end of LBDC, farmer extracted more water is causing groundwater mining due to lack of technical knowledge related to the management of groundwater. Now to management of this problem using simulation water balance approached from the data 2017- 2018 year. The water balance result show that total inflow in to system is 8197.13MCM from considering the parameter of recharge is 4006.278 MCM, supply from the canal is 4190.85 MCM but the total annual outflow is 18487.872 MCM from considering the parameter of evapotranspiration and groundwater abstraction. The change in water storage is (-10290.74MCM). The future scenarios result show that Scenario1: Due to climate change and uneven rainfall my cause to the now condition of groundwater and canal is not fulfill the crop water requirement. Scenario 2: Due to increase of groundwater the water table abstraction more decline at the end of the tail as compared to the head, the water abstraction falling at the 2.06m as compared to the head end 1.2m from the year 2017-2018 then it also effect on the water balance (-1131.31 MCM) to (- 12812.44). The result suggested that to manage the canal water supply, to build the storage system from saving the water at head end then to easily provide this to tail end and to avoid those crops which required more irrigation water and to use the artificial technique for the recharge of groundwater.